Introduction. The literature review and introduction for the manuscript will be extensive including such sources as the theory of cognitive dissonance, elaborations by Aronson of the overjustification effect, Michael Lerner's (2006) "new bottom line," David Korten's The Great Turning, Meliss Harris-Lacewell on taking theory into community, Paul Rogat's Loeb's (1999) Soul of a Citizen, Craig Nelson's (2006) biography of Thomas Paine, Riane Eisler's (2007) The Real Wealth of Nations, Riane Swimme and Thomas Berry's (1994) The Universe Story, Louis Fischer's (1997) The Life of Mahatma Gandhi, Phil Zimbardo's (2007) The Lucifer Effect, Mark Pilisuk's (2008) Who Benefit's from Global Violence and War, and other sources. For the purposes of the April 17, 2008 poster session the literature review and introduction were more circumscribed. There are two threads to this research program. The first is encouraging students to engage in volunteerism. It is important to include opportunities for growth and personal development in our liberal arts curriculum. Humanist psychology (e.g., Wade & Tavris, 2003, pp. 21-22) emphasizes the importance of personal growth, personal development, human potential, and the hopes and aspirations of people. An important dimension of humanist psychology is prosocial motivation and behavior. Prosocial behavior is any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person, including volunteerism. Surveys indicate that 47 percent of the population of the United States engage in community service (Aronson, Wilson, and Akert, 2005, pp. 383-384) and many high schools, colleges, and businesses require their students and employees to engage in volunteer work. Promoting volunteerism should be part of any liberal arts education. Until the Fall 2002, students in my classes were asked to do a term paper. Starting in the Fall 2002, I tried to encourage volunteerism by giving students the opportunty to volunteer for 20 hours and write a three-page reaction paper or write a six-page research paper. In addition to the six pages of text students were also required to have a cover page and a separate references list. Several of the citations had to be from their textbook and from one of a list of journals I specified. The second thread of this research program is to encourage social justice work. The importance of social justice psychology follows from scholarly work in positive psychology (Aspinwall & Staudinger, 2003) and the psychology of virtue ethics (Fowers, 2005). Social justice action falls within the domain of psychology in several ways. Informed citizens have all studied Lawrence Kohlberg's (e.g., 1973) stage theory of moral development. Beyond that, however, most people evaluate collective political actions in principled or moral terms (Sears, 2003). Paul Loeb, in his introduction to Soul of a Citizen: Living with Conviction in a Cynical Time, asserts that social activism gives people "a sense of purpose, pride, and service; teaches them new skills; shows them how to confront daunting obstacles; lets them experience new worlds. It offers a sense of camaraderie and helps them build powerful friendships, partnerships, and sometimes even romances" (Loeb, 1999, p. 9). Accordingly, my goal in this research program is to increase the number of students who choose to do their term project with volunteerism or social justice work. The theoretical basis of this work is cognitive dissonance theory. If people are required to do something (e.g., social justice work) their values will not change, because they can explain to themselves that they did it because it was required. But if they had a choice and chose to do something and find the need to explain it to themselves, they are likely to reduce any dissonance they feel by convincing themselves that somehting is something they value. A. Research question. The study is designed to determine if I can increase the number of students in my classes who freely choose to take on volunteer work or social justice activism instead of writing a term paper. The overjustification effect predicts that people who do not have a compelling external justification for doing a behavior (e.g., a class requirement) will need to explain their actions to themselves and will choose to explain the motivation for their actions as coming from their own values. My purpose is to encourage my students to adopt values of citizenship and public responsibility as a result of doing volunteer work and social justice activism. This is my 2007-2008 University of Wisconsin Teaching Scholar research project. B. Hypotheses. 1. That sharing with students throughout the semester narratives of people who engage in volunteer work, will increase the number of students who choose to engage in 20 hours of volunteer work and write a brief reaction paper about the experience. 2. That sharing with students throughout the semester narratives of people who engage in social justice activism will lead some students to engage in 20 hours of social activism and write a brief reaction paper about the experience. 3. That encouraging students to volunteer or engage in social justice activism, while preserving the sense that they freely choose to do so, will lead them to adopt volunteering and/or social activism as their own self concept and moral responsibility

Methods. At the beginning of each semester students are given instructions for the term project which is worth 10% of their semester grade. Prior to Fall Semester 2007 students were given (a) the option of doing 20 hours of volunteer work and writing a three-page reaction paper or (b) writing a six-page term paper on any topic relevant to the class. In addition to the six pages of text students were required to provide an additional cover page and a separate references page.

Experiment 1 Methods Fall 2007. In Fall 2007, lectures and guest speakers were added to the curricula. The intent of these added lectures and guest speakers was to increase the motivation to choose the volunteer experience (Option 1). In addition, students were given the opportunity to choose a new option (Described to students as Option 2). This option was 20 hours of social justice work and a reaction paper of three or more pages. Lectures and guest speakers were added to the curricula in order to increase understanding of and motivation for social justice work. The syllabus for my course added Option 2 as the incentive to engage in social justice work. Please see http://frontpage.uwsuper.edu/psychology/317/317proj2.htm A social justice/peace web page for students to look at and find opportunities for social justice/peace events has been added. See http://www2.uwsuper.edu/peace/ The web page for each of my classes lists social justice/peace opportunties. See for example my course on Interpersonal, Community, and Global Violence at http://frontpage.uwsuper.edu/psychology/317/_317web07.htm Writing a term paper of six or more pages was unchanged. It was described to students as Option 3.

Social Justice Lectures. Social justice lectures have been written and added to the curriculum. Examples may be seen in the links below: Theoretical rationale for project Service learning guest lecture Training: Direct Social Justice Action The development revolution The University as a Change Agent Graduate of UW_Superior who exemplifies social justice work Lydia Lopez, Union Organizer, Columbian Flower Industry Video: Earth Conservation Corps Lecture: Loeb, We Don't Have To Be Saints

Examples of Social Justice Opportunities Women in Black Vigils Sample social justice letter This is a letter students can choose to use to protest the treatment workers in Columbia--a social justice action. It is a follow-up from having Lydia Lopez, Union Organizer, Columbian Flower Industry speak to my class. Peacebuilding Colloqyia This address outlines the theoretical context and background for my Teaching Volunteerism and Social Activism project Social Justice Web Site March against domestic violence CHUM Upcoming Events (Churches United in Ministry) Regional Anti_War Rally in Chicago Northland Anti-War Coalition Planning Meeting Announcement of one of the Campus Peace Center Discussions Peace Picket in West Duluth Hunger Banquet Students working on the Hunger Banquet would count towards social justice work

Experiment 1 Results and Discussion. Three sets of results will be described in this section: (1) The first is a table of the results of the frequency of students choosing volunteer work, social justice work, and a term paper. Comparisons were made to choices the previous time the course was taught. The frequency count is in the link below. (2) Results from an anonymous questionnaire at the end of the semester asking why they chose the option they chose. (3) Results from a test of using the Just Peacemaking Scale. This scale will be used in subsequent semesters to determine if attitudes and/or values change as the result of these procedures.

Experiment 1 Frequency of student choices. Social justice lectures, guest speakers, and opportunities had clear impact in the Interpersonal, Community and Global Violence 317 course. More students submitted term projects with social justice components than students who submitted term projects with volunteer and term paper components. Six (40 students submitted term projects with social justice components compared to four (27 with volunteer components and five (33 with term paper components. The percentage of projects with volunteer components (27 and term paper components (33 dropped from the Fall 2006 when the social justice option was not available. In the Fall 2006 [(31 5/16] of term projects were volunteer experiences and [(69 11/16] were term papers. Of course with only one semester of observations and with only 15 participants in this experiment, inferential statistics are not possible. By continuing this project across four semesters until May 2009 it may then be possible to use inferential statistics. Social justice lectures, guest speakers, and opportunities had no affect in the Psychology of Women 258 or the Motivation 352 courses. In Psychology of Women no students chose social justice projects, while seven students [(41 7/17] chose volunteer projects and ten students [(59 10/17] chose term papers. In Motivation and Emotion no students chose social justice projects, while three students [(19 3/16] chose volunteer projects and ten students [(81 13/16] chose term papers. One might argue that the difference in effectiveness among the three courses of the social justice instruction might be the topics of the courses themselves. Many of the social justice opportunities were about ending the occupation of Iraq. However, in Psychology of Women one of the nine principles of feminism is social activism and in Motivation and Emotion there was substantial values and social responsibility theoretical content. The difference in responding to the social justice instruction may reside in differences between students who enroll in these three different courses. This interpretation will be tested in the Fall 2008 via two different values instruments [see description of plans for Experiment 3]. In Interpersonal, Community, and Global Violence the percentage of students choosing the volunteer work decreased from [(45 5/11] in 2006 to 27in 2007. This is interpreted as reflecting the influence of social justice opportunities. There is only 100of choices and if social justice is chosen more often than before then either/both volunteer experience and term paper options must necessarily decrease. In Psychology of Women 258 the percentage of students choosing the volunteer option increased from [(21 7/33] in the Spring 2007 to 41in the Fall 2007. This is interpreted as the effectiveness of lectures, guest speakers, and opportunities provided for volunteer work. No comparisons were made between the present Motivation and Emotion course and the previous one because it had been several years since the author had taught that course and such differences revealed in the comparisons could have been explained by events during the intervening years. Student Choices Frequency counts The number of students who chose social justice activism, volunteer work, or the term paper during Fall Semester 2007. Similar frequency counts are planned for Spring 2008, Fall 2008, and Spring 2009

Manipulation Check Results and Discussion. At the end of fall semester students were given a questionnaire asking them questions about the independent variable and the extent they were able to participate in volunteer work and social justice work (one of the dependent variables). This is the typical method of a "manipulation check" to understand the meaning of the choices for participants. Those responses reveal how great the competition for student time is when they work so many hours in addition to school and family responsibilities. Six questions were asked: 1. Do you feel the goal of encouraging volunteer participation was successfully met? 2. Were there enough announcements of volunteer opportunities? 3. Do you feel that some of the lectures and guest speakers encouraged social justice work? 4. Do you feel there were enough announcements of social justice work were available? 5. Did you choose to do some volunteer work this semester? Please explain why or why not. 6. Did you choose to do some social justice work this semester? Please explain why or why not. A table showing the responses may be found in the links below. Participation in the questionnaire was modest. Work needs to be done to get a larger level of participation during the next semesters. In general, however, some students did not participate in volunteer activities and social justice activism because their work or class schedules were barrriers. Psychology 258 Manipulation Checks Psychology 317 Manipulation Checks Psychology 352 Manipulation Checks

Just Peacemaking Scale. These data have been analyzed and are in the process of being formatted to be saved to the server. Completion is expected before April.

Experiment 2. Between Fall 2007 and Spring 2008 semesters I discussed results from Experiment 1 with colleagues and received some useful feedback. Those discussions led me to change the instructions for the term project spring semester 2008, especially the length of a competing alternative, the term paper.

Experiment 2 Methods. The three term project options were revised to make it more likely that students would choose the volunteer experience or the social justice experience. The volunteer experience (Option 1) was now described as a volunteer experience with a five-page description of that experience. Social justice work (Option 2) was now described as a social justice experience with a five-page description of that experience. The term paper (Option 3) was now described as a twelve-page research paper. Students were given the option of combining options, for example 10 hours of social justice work and a six-page term paper. Half way through the semester (March 20, 2008) I have realized that I have used so much of the in-class time on opportunities and persuasion to engage in volunteer work and social justice work that there is no time left to add more such in-class content without squeezing out more course specific content. In order to continue highlighting the importance of these opportunities I am starting to reserve the Multi-Cultural Center on our campus to show videos and encourage discussion campus-wide of social justice issues. The first such discussion will be during the noon hour on Tuesday, April 1. At that campus-wide meeting I will show the George Lakoff video "How Progressives can frame their message." Other opportunities for discussion of social justice issues will be the resumption of our Peace Center conversations which we initiated last fall.

Experiment 2 Results and Discussion. Results from Spring semester 2008 are being analyzed. Completion of these analyses is expect by July 25 and will be posted here.

Experiment 3 is being planned for Fall 2008. In addition to refining the instructions for social justice, volunteer experience, and term paper instructions based upon analyses from Experiments 1 and 2, Experiment 3 will begin asking questions about other ways these strategies are effecting students. Experiments 1 and 2 measured the choices students made. Experiments 3 and 4 will add measures of values and attitudes. Two of these instruments are being tested during the 2007-2008 academic year. Based upon these tests they may be used in Experiment 3. The Social Psychology listserv suggested two instruments for this purpose: One instrument that will be tested is the Just Peacemaking Inventory (Brown, et. al, under editorial review). This scale was developed with grant funding from the United States Department of Justice on Interfaith Conflict Transformation. Recognizing the effectiveness of spiritual and religious morality in the peacemaking of exemplars such as M. K. Gandhi, this scale emphasizes deontological justice and religious virture. Exploratory factor analyses produced a five-factor model including subscales of (a) Concern for Just and Sustainable Development, (b) Activism, (c) American Unilateral Action, (d) Empathy, and (e) Religious Exclusivism. The second is an instrument from the The Center for Information & Research on Civic Learning & Engagement at Maryland. Their website is http://www.civicyouth.org/?page_id=140

Status of Work During the Summer 2008 A new IRB proposal is in preparation asking for approval to extend the research another year. This proposal will include a description of the instruments to be used during Experiments 3 and 4.

References Aspinwall, L. G., & Staudinger, U. M. (2003, Ed.). A psychology of human strengths: Fundamental questions and future directions for a positive psychology. American Psychological Association. Brown, S.; Reimer, K. S.; Dueck, A. C.; Gorsuch, R.; Strong, R.; & Sidesinger, T. (under editorial review). Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology. Fowers, B. J. (2005). Virtue and psychology: Pursuing excellence in ordinary practices. American Psychological Association. Kohlberg, L. (1973). Continuities in childhood and adult moral development revisited. In P. Baltes & K. W. Schaie (Eds.) Life-span developmental psychology: Personality and socialization. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Loeb, P. R. (1999). Soul of a citizen: Living with conviction in a cynical time. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. Sears, D. O. (2003). Political symbols and collective moral action. In L. G. Aspinwall & U. M. Staudinger (Ed.). A psychology of human strengths: Fundamental questions and future directions for a positive psychology. American Psychological Association.